Attributes of Sufis and Dervishes in the Islamic Miniatures with application on manuscripts from xv till xvii centuries

Atributos de los Sufís y derviches en las miniaturas islámicas

Ibrahim Elassal

Universidad de Córdoba, Spain; Instituto Superior de Sinaí, Ras Sedr, Egipto

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Resumen El objetivo de este artículo es investigar sobre los diferentes atributos que fueron utilizados por los sufís y derviches y aparecen en la miniatura de varias escuelas del arte islámico. Todas ellas pertenecen a época medieval, cuando comienza a valorarse la miniatura islámica. La vida de los místicos musulmanes acaparó en gran medida el interés del miniaturista musulmán y todos los estudios abordados hasta ahora son fundamentalmente descriptivos, sin considerar los atributos característicos de los sufís y derviches, su significado espiritual, sus formas y tamaños, ni las diferencias entre una escuela y otra o dentro de un marco cronológico. El artículo clasifica los atributos místicos en tres grupos principales: los religiosos, que están relacionados con rituales islámicos y poemas sufíes tradicionales; los atributos civiles y los instrumentos musicales, que aparecen claramente en las miniaturas de celebraciones y festividades de las escuelas sufís dedicadas a la meditación y el espíritu.

Palabras clave miniatura islámica; instrumentos musicales; sufismo; derviches; místicos; bol de mendigo “kashkul”

Abstract The purpose of this article is to investigate in attributes used by Sufis and dervishes through the islamic miniatures in different periods and from various origins of manuscripts. Mysticism is represented widely in islamic paintings, all introduced related studies were descriptive for miniature itself without focusing on traditional instruments formed the life of mystics and accompanied them in various scenes of daily life rituals. The article classifies those implements in to 3 main categories; religious related to islamic verses rituals and Sufi traditions, civil ones used in public subjects, and musical related to spiritual Sufi celebrations. Moreover, introducing samples of miniatures to support that presented analysis through historical artist point of view, with recognizing mystical thoughts of each implement that makes harmony between art represented in illustrations and religion appeared in Sufi belief.

Key Words Islamic miniature; musical instruments; Sufism; Dervishes; mystics; Beggar bowl (kashkul)

Cómo citar / How to cite ELASSAL, i. Attributes of Sufis and Dervishes in the Islamic Miniatures with application on manuscripts from xv till xvii centuries. Cuadernos de la Alhambra. 2019, 48, 243-259. eISSN 2695-379X.

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Paintings of Sufis and dervishes occupied a great interest at thoughts of muslim painters, influenced by spread of Sufism and mysticism in islamic society.

Mystical topics and subjects in islamic miniatures were summarized in three main ones; Sufi ceremonies “Sema” which were occurred since the early appearance of what’s called “Tariqa” that is a group of Sufis who have their own terms “Zekr” of spiritual practise aiming to seek the ultimate truth.

Secondly, those miniatures which are talking about the relationship between Sufis and Sheikhs with governors, Emperors, Sultans and nobles that represented in large scale in paintings of islamic manuscripts. The last group of miniatures showing the stories of well known Sufis and dervishes through the different times of Islamic Empire, and were narrated by historical generations or those who were depicted an important part of islamic literary throughout all periods of civilization.

Miniatures of Sufis and dervishes were occurred in all schools of art like Timurid and Safavid in the Persian manuscripts, in addition to Indian-Maghul and Turkish schools. In the same time, they were not related with temporal periods more than others; existed in all times of illustrated manuscripts since the xii century till the xvii century. That’s lead to the variety existence of images and paintings of Sufis and dervishes, with all features of daily spiritual practise.

Among the main features of mystical miniatures were the attributes and instruments that Sufis used to hold and utilize during their accomplishment for rituals.

This Study mainly objectives to recognize those implements and tools and their significance in mystical thoughts, in addition to studying the extension of instruments’ usage and their appearance in paintings from one school of art to another, and from one era to another.

Those attributes are categorized in three main groups; religious ones which are associated with dervishes’ rituals and Sufi rites like Beggar Bowl "Kashkul", Beads, Book and Flags, in addition to the civil ones which are utilized in civilian actions and attitudes. Moreover, the musical implements which are strongly related with the mystical Sufi ceremonies "Sema" and appeared widely in the Islamic miniatures.

Religious attributes

Majority of Sufi representations in the islamic miniatures were found in religious attitudes, like their ceremonies of spiritual rituals, meditation and manifestations of adoring and worshipping, that’s lead to existence of attributes related to such performances like beggar bowls which found in separate artistic objects more than its attendance in images of dervishes in islamic manuscripts. Moreover, others related to their religious rituals like books, beads and flags.

Beggar Bowl “kashkul”

Kashkul is considered one of the unique attributes related to Sufis and dervishes, and appeared widely in their miniatures, it was represented sometimes as a separated object made of wood, cocoanut, or metal and existed in museums and patrimonial centres all over the world, usually include verses from the Qur’an as well as mystical terms of Persian praising on its outer faces.

The beggar’s bowl or ‘kashkul’ was a symbol of religious poverty assumed by islamic mystics, this function was reflected in existed inscriptions on its outer parts. Several studies and historical analysis about Kashkul and its development were introduced, but all of them interpreted as applied objects in a separating way not as a part of the miniature 1.

The Persian word kashkul denotes the oval or boat-shaped beggar’s bowl that had carried by generations of dervishes over their shoulders to collect gifts and alms 2, many dervishes had been able to live from alms alone. A princely beggar’s bowl was hardly used to collect alms in the form of money or in kind. The dervishes were begging for the advantage of their Sheikhs who lived in their monasteries waiting those alms from their followers each evening; due to occupation of their all time in adoring and praising.

Concerning the origin of the word, it is a pure Persian expression which is divided in two main words; "kash" which is mean to pull while the second is "kul" which refers to shoulders, both together apply to what’s pulled by shoulders. This translates its position on the shoulders of dervishes and Sufis in the miniatures and illustrations 3.

Usually kashkul has more than one date, due to inheriting kashkuls from one dervish to another as a kind of blessing, which is reflecting the symbolic importance of such bowls in the development of Sufi concept through different times of islamic history 4.

Apart from studying the materialistic objects of Kashkuls, they are appeared through islamic paintings of manuscripts in different shapes and categories, what helps to interpret the different points of view of such bowls’ functions; some scholars claimed that they weren’t only used for collecting alms and aids, but also it was used for eating and drinking 5. Several examples of miniatures’ bowls proved the existence of 2 different functional theories; one used for collecting alms while the other for feeding purpose.

Dervishes’ bowls appeared in a miniature of 6 Sufi sheikhs while discussing in a garden, a leaf from Shah Gehan album, dating back to 1640, preserved in San Diego art museum, belonging to Indian Maghul school of art (IL.1), Kashkul appears obliviously on the shoulder of the front Sheikh on the right hand side who is represented while speaking with one of the partners in such talking, what’s proved that dervishes used to accompany those bowls everywhere, until they aren’t in use 6.

This kind of bowls without an open end -top, covered when being not in use, was spread in paintings of Indian Maghul school of art 7, what’s showed in other miniatures, especially those who are date back to xvi century in the period of Shah Gehan, while the dervishes used to walk in the desert with lions and panthers bearing such attribute 8.

The origin of this type of Kashkuls, is dating back to the second Safavid period; where miniatures represented princes and nobles meetings with sheikhs and dervishes who were appeared hanging their bowls on their shoulders 9. This sort of Kashkuls extended to Turkish painting which is clear in a sample dated to Baghdad 1590, narrating the scene of execution of Mansur Al-Hallaj 10, representing one of the dervishes in the front scene while holding Kashkul belonging to the same category used for alms and aids (IL.2) 11.

Another type utilized for both functions of feeding and collecting alms together, was appeared on the shoulder of dervishes that wasn’t hanged, occurred supporting by stick held by dervish’s hand especially in the miniatures of Safavid dynasty.

Some examples found of both functioned types having 2 bowls with one stick, what’s appeared in an Indian Maghul miniature, dated to 1603, represents one of mystic followers "Murids" while kissing dervish’s feet (IL.3) 12.

Some appeared “Kashkuls” in islamic miniatures weren’t carried on shoulders nor hanged, just were hold in hands of dervishes or put beside the sheikhs and Sufis in their settings; like an example of a miniature, dated to 1488, from manuscript of “Bustan” for the Persian Sufi Poet “Saadi” and preserved in national library in Egypt (IL.4) 13, showing one of the dervishes on the door of a mosque holding such bowl with his hand asking a Sheikh to give him charities and alms 14.

IL. 1. “Kashkul” & “Sebha” & “Book”. Six Sufi sheikhs while discussing in a garden, a leaf from Shah Gehan album, 1640. San Diego art Museum, OR.32.ab. Indian –Maghul School of art. Okada A., Imperial Mughal Painters, Indian Miniatures from 16th to 17th, Pl.257

IL. 2. “Kashklu” Scene of execution of Mansur Al-Hallaj. A leaf of manuscript “Manqib Al-Thawqeb”, 99 Verso Peer Pont Morgan Library, M.466 Baghdad 1590. Schmitz (B.), Islamic & Indian Manuscripts and Paintings in the Pierpont Morgan Library, Pl.23

IL. 3. “Kashkul”. One of mystic followers “Murids” while kissing dervish’s feet. 1603. National Museum, New Delhi, CBL.37. Indian Maghul school of art Elaine (W.), Muraqqa, Imperial Maghul Albums, Fig 8

IL. 4 “Kashkul” A dervish on the door of a mosque asking a Sheikh to give him charities and alms (Part of a miniature) manuscript of “Bustan Saadi” 1488 Bihzad National library in Egypt, 22 – Persian Literature By the author from Original Manuscript

As a result of mentioned examples of islamic miniatures, 3 main types of such bowls are represented; one hanging on the shoulder, second supported by stick on the shoulder, third was hold in the hands of dervishes. Through functional point of view, 3 types of Kashkuls found in miniatures; one utilized for the purpose of feeding, second for collecting alms, third for both roles together.

Prayer beads "Sebha"

Muslims used beads to count the repetitions of prayers, chants or devotions, moreover remembrances’ practise what’s called in Islam "Dhikr" 15, similar to the rosary of Virgin Mary in Christianity 16.

Arabic Term "Sebha" is derived from the devotional act itself. Sebha used by muslims, generally, after 5 prays per day, while Sufis and dervishes used it widely in kind of more adoring and praising reflecting the nature of mysticism which requires more God remembrances and Qur’an recitals.

As an attribute fundamental for Sufis and dervishes in their miniatures, "Sebha" was related to religious rituals that performed by Sufis, so that it was appeared in large scale. In writings of Sufism, it is considered a symbol of lightness in dark life; the sufi who used to have it, enjoys with such light, and who haven’t stays in blackness till the immortal darkness in life after death 17.

Beads’ number differentiates between short ones of 33 beads, and long ones of 99 beads. Usually Sufis used the large one that enables them to do more remembrances and invocations reflecting their honesty in performing 18.

Beads’ materiel distinguishes from one era to another; painters of Persian school of art used to be more realistic by using simple materials matching with austerity of dervishes and Sufis, while the Turkish and Indian Maghul miniaturists used to exaggerating in materials of such beads like ivory, marble, cedar wood and pearls sometimes 19.

"Sebha" is appeared in various islamic miniatures with different ways, sizes and positions. In a mentioned above miniature (IL.1), a Sheikh Sufi appears while holding a long classic "Sebha" with his 2 hands, in the same time he is talking to his partner in discussion meeting 20.

Another position for "Sebha" is appeared hold by one hand like a Timurid painting leaf from manuscript "Divan Hafez" dated to xv century and preserved in Egyptian nation library in Cairo (IL.5) 21, showing a Sufi sheikh while refusing an emotional scene between two lovers, appeared with prayer beads in his left hand, and expressing his objection with moving the right one.

Its occurrence extends to be appeared in mystical Sufi dance ceremonies, hold by dervishes and performers in "Sema" ceremonies; it was hold usually without utilization as a symbol of lighting dark immortal life of mystics 22.

Prayer beads were found in large usage in complete mystical spiritual paintings which were spread in Sufi concept generally, and the miniaturists gave an interest to represent it in the meditation meeting, and usually their bearers appeared while closing their eyes concentrating in his god remembrance attitude 23. This position appeared widely in the Indian Maghul school of art illustrations, where mystical examination dominating all over paintings’ features 24.

Muslim prayer beads were appeared as a traditional religious habit used by Sufis in their daily life actions as well 25.

Thus, islamic miniatures of Sufis and dervishes’ representations introduced Sebha as a religious attribute related to paintings of mysticism, through various examples of images, it’s noticed that, 3 ways of existed prayer beads; one hold by the 2 hands of Sufi, the second was hold by one hand without being utilized, while the third was performed by one hand in the same time of doing another action with the other hand.

IL. 5. “Sebha” Prayer Beads. A Sufi sheikh refusing a an emotional scene between two lovers. Manuscript “Divan Hafez”, 17 Verso xv century Egyptian nation library in Cairo, 2 Persian Literture – Khalil Agha Timurid School of art By the author from Original Manuscript

In addition to its occurrence in daily life mystical scenes, meditation spiritual meetings, dancing ceremonial miniatures, and usual meetings with governors and princes, this is reflecting its mystical significance in Sufi concept.

Book

Book is considered one of the common features of Sufi paintings in islamic manuscripts. It’s appeared with Sufis and dervishes in the majority of their images in islamic art in general.

This attribute is categorized as a religious attribute, because all what found examples were only religious like Qur’an, the divine book of Islam religion, or Sufi mystical referenced books; like Masnavi of Rumi or Language of Birds of Farid ad-Din Attar.

Book of birds’ language "Mantiq al-Tayr" is an epic of approximately 4500 lines written in Persian, where mysticism appeared through the legendary mythical bird "Simorgh", roughly equivalent to the western phoenix 26. While Mesnavi, which had been written in Persian, Arabic, Turkish, and Urdu cultures, is considered one of the purest literary glories of Persia, and one of the crowning sources of Sufism all over history 27.

In mystical thoughts, the existence of book, accompanied by Sufis and dervishes in miniatures, is considered as a feature of knowledge and spiritual wisdom that should be a distinguished attitude for all Sufis and sheikhs 28.

Islamic miniaturists introduced various samples of Sufi’s paintings that showing the book in 3 main positions; closed and put beside Sufis and dervishes in the scene of miniature, or was seen while opened without being used or was found hold by Sufis while reading its content like an Indian Maghul miniature dated to 1630, from album of "Shah Gehan", representing Sheikh Sufi in his Cave while reading from his Book which seems to be the Qur’an according to the meditation attitude of the reader, in the same scene another Sufi appeared while going through in another copy of Qur’an to follow the recite as Moslems used to do in Qur’an reading circles (IL.6) 29. The same position of opened books appeared in illustration of Sufi groups and wise men who usually discussing in such spiritual joining mystical meetings that read in religious books’ samples 30.

Likewise, paintings found with various positions of the book in the same time; opened, read, and closed in one exhibition which usually occurred in the spiritual meetings illustrations 31.

Qur’an not only the book used by Sufis in their representations, also another mystical spiritual books were watched with Sufis like Mesanvi of the Sufi grand poet Rumi appeared in a miniature of manuscript "Mesnavi", preserved in Egyptian national library in Cairo and dated to 1261, representing a Sufi Sheikh while finishing his reading to the mystical glory as a translated meaning found in the written text accompanied to the miniature scene (IL.7) 32.

Another examples of mystical books appeared in the miniatures like the Sufi great work of mystical poet "San’ai" 33 , called Garden of truth "Hadiqat al Haqiqa" which is considered the first Persian mystical epic of Sufism.

IL. 6. “Book”. Sheikh Sufi in his Cave while reading from his Book. A leaf of album of Shah Gehan. 1630. Gemith Museum, Paris, GJK.876 Goferdhan Indian Maghul School of art Okada (A.), Imperial Mughal Painters, Indian Miniatures from 16th & 17th centuries, Pl.224

In addition to poems of Persian poet "Saadi" which was one of the mystical books read on large scale between Sufis and mystics which lead to its appearance widely in Islamic illustrations.

Book is appeared in different topics of Sufi miniatures, and its existence as a dervish’s attribute extend to the illustrations of mystical ceremonies by holding it in hands of attendants in Sema dance celebrations 34.

From all above mentioned samples, we can resume that "Book" is represented in Sufi paintings as a fundamental feature. It was watched in 3 main positions; opened or closed and sometimes found with both together. The represented books in Sufi miniatures were pure religious, summarized in 2 sources Qur’an or mystical books of Sufi Poets like Mesnavi of Rumi and others. The existence of Books extended to be in Sema Sufi ceremonies, not only in mystic meetings between sheikhs and dervishes.

IL. 7. “Book”. A Sufi Sheikh while finishing his reading to the mystical glory “Mesnavi”manuscript “Mesnavi” , 26- Sufism Talaat Egyptian national library in Cairo 1261 By the author from Original Manuscript

Flag

Dervishes and Sufis used flags in their ceremonies and funereal events, each school of Sufism "Tariqa" 35 had its own flag which is differentiate from one order to anther in colour, design and writings inscribed upon it.

Those flags usually consist of a long stick ends with a piece of coloured cloth have a religious writings depending on the terms of remembrances in each Sufi order "Tariqa" that often was put by its main guide sheikh 36.

Pure Sufi concept believes in the religious importance of flags which are considered in mystical thoughts the way to the heaven, and who has it, owns the universe, loves the truth, being near from God 37.

Sufi paintings of islamic manuscripts shows some examples of flags, its existence was only for funeral and ceremonial mystical occasions, In addition to some rare samples of Sufis who convoyed flags as a kind of spiritual approaching to God.

The main subject of including flags was funeral scenes like its occurrence in funerary of "Galal El Rumi" in a miniature from manuscript "Manqib Al-thawqib" dated to 1590, preserved in Pierpont Morgan library in New York, artistically belongs to Turkish school of art, shows flags carried by 2 dervishes on the left hand side while followers and murids of Rumi are crying him (IL.8) 38. Appeared Flags in this miniature followed Mewlewi Sufi order that established by Rumi himself 39. Another design of flags with different colours appeared in funeral and celebrative miniatures 40.

Apart from scenes of funerary and ceremonies, flags are appeared also in some miniatures of individual Sufis and dervishes who carried them to reach away of owning the universe 41.

Thus Flags were related to miniatures of Sufis and dervishes, they had a religious significance. The majority of their appearance was in miniatures of funeral and ceremonial events, in the same time appeared in some individual cases hold by Sufis, and in such case it used to be shorter than the ones of ceremonies and funerary.

In addition to, their details and features like color, design and writings differentiate from one Sufi order to another. All writings found on such flags related to religion and mystical expressions which are matching with its significance in Sufi common thoughts.

Civil attributes

Islamic miniatures of mystical topics contain some instruments that not only utilized by Sufis and dervishes, but also were watched in other civil fields like jars which were found in daily life scenes, moreover Staffs, Spears and Axes, Although, some of them enjoyed with a mystical spiritual significances in Sufi writings and thoughts.

Staff

Staffs occupied great importance in life of Sufis and dervishes translated by muslim painters in illustrated manuscripts. Staff is considered the most represented attribute in the mystical miniatures en general, due to its indication in Sufi thoughts that connect it with Moses’ one which he used to produce water from a rock, and was transformed into a snake and back, and was used at the parting of the Red Sea 42.

Moses staff mentioned in Qur’an as well as Book of Exodus; in one of the spells of Qur’an, Allah Says what’s meaning is: “And we inspired to Moses, ‘Throw your staff’ and at once it devoured what they were falsifying” 43. Thus, it related in Islamic mystical thoughts with prophets’ miracles.

On the other hand, Sufis believed that it symbolizes to the Altmate truth and pushes out all wrongs and nonsense 44, So that they care about having it in their meetings, caves, ceremonies and rarely walking without.

Several shapes of sticks appeared in Sufi miniatures; differentiate in thickness, height, and colours. The thick ones appeared in various painted samples more than the thin sticks. Concerning Colours; black, brownish and yellow staffs were only observed in islamic Sufi miniatures.

Usually it ends with a curve that helping to be utilized as crutch, in addition to its usage as walking sticks for elderly Sheikhs. It often was made of different kinds of wood which is matching with the principal of austerity.

IL. 8. “Flags”. Funerary of Rumi, and his murids carrying him. A leaf from manuscript “Manqib Al-thawqib” , 124 recto. 1590, Baghdad. Pierpont Morgan library, New York. Turkish school of art Schmitz (B.), Islamic & Indian Manuscripts and Paintings in the Pierpont morgan library, Pl.20

Thick staff is appeared in Islamic miniatures hold by Sufis and dervishes in their hands by various shapes and forms like thick black ones in the miniature of Divan Hafez (IL.5). This type appeared widely in the Safavid paintings.

On the other hand, thin sticks are also appeared widely in Sufi miniatures, like those 2 young dervishes represented while holding their thin staffs and singing Sufi spiritual poems of Persian poet "Hafez", a leaf from manuscript "Divan" dated to xv century and preserved in Egyptian national library (IL.9) 45, referring that staffs used by young dervishes not only as a sign of walking by elderly Sheikhs.

In the same time, staff is utilized in some miniatures as a crutch by Sufis, like a representation of Sheikh Sanan as an old man in one of the episodes of his mystical known story with the Georgian Christian girl 46, when he responded her request in shepherding pigs which is against his Muslim belief (IL.10) 47, belongs to the manuscript Tongue of Birds “Lisan Al-Tayr” dated to 1553, preserved in national library of Paris, belongs artistically to Bukhara school of art.

Colours of staffs that are watched in Sufi paintings restricts on 3 main colours, red, Brown and Black ones which formed the majority of its existence in mystical paintings. Moreover, its occurrence in dance Sufi ceremonies in hands of sheikh and dervishes which usually are seen hold by attending sheikhs while rituals performers dancing in such Sema celebrations.

Samples of staff in Sufi miniatures refer to its importance as a principal feature watched widely in illustrations of Sufis and dervishes, In addition to, recognizing the shapes and colours of such canes and sticks in islamic paintings. On the other hand, confirming the usage of such staffs as crutches for elderly Sufi sheikhs in the same time, they were found in hands of young dervishes.

Hookah (Narghile)

From the core of Sufi ideation, there are some important meanings should be reached by performers; like highness, dissolution, annihilation and others of mystical terms. Sufis reached to the peak of their meditation by using "Narghile" as well as alcoholic drinks.

The word "Narghile", which refers to Hookah, had Persian origins; in all ancient Persian dictionaries, this word is interpreted as a coconut used to smoke tobacco, its bottom was made from coconut in its beginning parts, then glass was used to cover its top. In modern times high rich materials were used like ivory and wood 48. It was utilized widely in Turkish culture in the medieval epoch, and then moved and spread over the Arabic world.

Sufis and Dervishes smoked with hookahs to reach to the peak of ecstasy, and that was reflected in islamic art in general. In miniatures of Sufis, Narghile was appeared as an implement in their meetings and ceremonies, but actually it’s not watched much as the pervious elements. That’s may be for the austerity attitude dominating Sufis and dervishes in their life scenes. So that it’s appeared mostly in the Indian Maghul miniatures more than other epochs, as a result of absence austerity features in the Indian School of art in General.

IL. 9. “Staff”. Two young dervishes singing Sufi spiritual poems of Persian poet “Hafez”. A leaf from manuscript “Divan”, 43 verso. xv century Timurid school of art Egyptian national library, 2- Persian Literature Khalil Agha

By the author from Original Manuscript

IL. 10. “Staff”. Sheikh Sanan responds Christian girl request of shepherding pigs Manuscript Tongue of Birds “Lisan Al-Tayr” , 25 recto, 1553 National library of Paris. Turk.996 Bukhara School of art. Suleimanova (S.), Miniatures illustration of Alisher Navoi’s works of the xv – xix centuries, Pl.32

Apart from the knowhow of its usage and its usual description, we concentrate at the historical artistic point of view through Sufi paintings; Narghile is appeared with some inscriptions and writings upon its upper face. Some miniatures of Sufis contain such hookah utilized as a smoking tool helping them to reach ecstasy, other times appeared without being used as an accompanied feature for Sufis in their mystical daily life scenes. Moreover, its design differentiates from one painting to another; it usually hasn´t fixed forms that could be dependable in historical artistic analysis.

From the obvious examples of “Narghile” in Sufi paintings, a miniature dated to 1650, belongs to Indian Maghul School of art, representing meeting of group of Sufis and dervishes, while one of them in the frontal view is appeared smoking hookah, holding it by one hand, and appears in a clear mood of highness and annihilation, which is considered the origin of Sufism concept (IL.11) 49.

Narighiles were appeared in some samples of images without being utilized, but miniaturists cared to represent it in the scene reflecting its relation with mysticism 50. Those examples of Nargile and others proved its relation with Sufism, and to what extend muslim painter gave an interest to such attribute in smoking to create dissolution and ecstasy needed as the mystics believed in.

Jars

It is referring to food and beverage jars, pots, candlestick, and cups. They are all ceramic decorated jars that appeared in some miniatures of Sufis and dervishes utilized in different purposes of life like feeding, drinking wine to reach to highness and "Wajd". They are watched in different topics of mystical paintings like those of drinking beer and wine, and Sufi dance ceremonies. They were needed for Sufis in their solitary retreat which dominating all over their miniatures in islamic manuscripts.

IL. 11 “Narghile” A meeting of group of Sufis and dervishes 1650 Bodlian Library, Oxford Indian Maghul School of art Andrew(T.), Painting from Mughal India, Bodlian Library,Pl.41

Some candlesticks were appeared in paintings of Sufis that used in lighting the darkness of caves and solitaries where they used to live and receive their guests from governors like princes and emperors as well as their followers and murids who usually do such visits to gain blessings and pray.

Jars of Sufis’ miniatures were often made out of glasses which was spread in Persian paintings, especially Safavid School of art, due to fame of city "Shiraz" with glass factory 51, so that glass jars found in large scale in the manuscripts of the same period. Likewise other materials were used like ceramic and metals especially in those jars which used in drinking purpose during mystical meetings and spiritual ceremonies.

Jars were appeared in different sizes, various decorations and colours; like a miniature dated back to 1590, belongs to painter Muhammdi of second Safavid school of art, preserved in Boston museum of arts, representing group of dervishes searching for ecstasy between jars of wine, in that miniature, various shapes of jars are appeared with different decorative styles and colours (IL.12) 52. This scene was repeated in other samples of designs and sizes of jars carried by one or both hands of dervishes as a sign of its fullness of drink that important for him to reach his highness. Thus, Jars were represented in Sufi paintings for mentioned purposes in different sizes, colours, designs and decorations.

Otherwise, other civil attributes used by Sufis and appeared in their representations like The Spear which was commonly used in hunting animals and birds in forests and deserts. It’s appeared in some examples of Behzad Timurid miniatures in hands of dervishes 53.

Moreover, The axe which had been utilized by Sufis and dervishes in cutting trees for making fire needed to cooking purpose, moreover its usage in heating their caves which usually are in solitary. Axes found with bowls and other Sufi implements, it was usually made of different kinds of metals, decorated with geometrical and floral decorations, in addition to some writings upon its face. Axes were not appeared widely in miniatures of Sufis as well as spears 54.

Musical instruments

Paintings of mystical ceremonies formed a vital part of Sufis miniatures in Islamic manuscripts, due to spread of such dance meetings between dervishes and sheikhs, differentiate from one order or school "Tariqa" to another. Music was introduced in Sufi belief by Galal Al-Rumi who interpreted, in his Mesnavi, the importance of dance in reaching peak of meditation and "Wajd".

Islamic miniaturists gave special interest to ceremonial scenes when narrating Sufi life, and succeeded in introducing an acting play of what happened in such meetings of follower and murids in their school. The painter Bihzad, enjoyed with a leadership in presenting such Sema miniatures, some scholars proved that Bihzad had Sufi mystic thoughts, and that helped him a lot in painting’s details of what’s usually happens in such ceremonies, as if he was one of its performers. Then Bihzad exported that experience to his students in later schools of arts 55.

Those Sema miniatures needed to have musical instruments that were important to create the enough sounds that help performers to reach to "Wajd" and happiness.

From those musical instrumentals that found in the Islamic miniatures was "Ney" which is considered one of the oldest musical instruments still in use. It consists of a piece of hollow cane or reed with five or six finger holes and one thumb hole 56. Its origin, as an instrument, due to ancient Egyptian civilization 57, while as a word; it’s considered a pure Persian expression which is referred to "vertebrate trachea" that moving air to lungs and Larynx 58. Other terms utilized to express the same musical instrument of Ney like "Mizmar" and "Bucc" which is nearly similar to Trumpet 59.

In Sufism thoughts, this instrument enjoyed a mystical spiritual importance gained by Rumi, the founder of Mewlewi order, connected Ney with pen and wine; claiming that the end of the pen drawing the beauty in writing lines and paintings while Ney through its end exports a musical voice that drawing love in both mind and heart. On the other hand, both wine and Ney lead to fainting, attracting to highness of ecstasy and "Wajd" 60. Thus, Ney enjoyed a special importance in Mewlewi Sufi order, though it was appeared in writings of Sufi Persian poet Sanai, but actually with less consequence 61.

IL. 12 “Jars”. Group of dervishes searching for ecstasy between jars of wine. Speared leaf 1590 Muhammdi Second Safavid School of art Boston museum of arts. By correspondence with Boston museum of Arts

Ney was appeared in various samples of mystical dance ceremonies’ paintings, nearly in all islamic dynasties which were being obvious through its representations in all schools of art with different styles and shapes like what is called "Bucc" that usually enjoys with its wide end and appeared in Indian Maghul miniatures 62.

As well as Turkish School of art that featured with much representation of Sema Sufi ceremonies and Mewlewi celebrations which introduced music attributes to mystical circles on large scale due to its spiritual significance in writings of Rumi that create an atmosphere of highness and spiritual attraction 63.

Production of music in mystical occasions needed other helpful instrument which encourages more immersion of attraction attitude, that it was "Daf "or "Drum" ; they actually have a different musical usage according to specialists in musical sciences , but in such Sufi meetings they worked as alternatives for each other 64. Daf is a circle wooden instrument with an animal skin to hit it creating a musical sound, varied in size and type of skin, but in all cases, Sufis identified "Daf" with love by calming that drummer usually falling in love with it, and all sounds came out by drumming referring to lover body which lost its straight as a result of using, this meaning logically is matching with the non straight position of Sufi dancers during spiritual ceremonies 65.

Drums performed the same role in Sema meetings, with possibility to use drum in its double faces to produce sounds. Drum in Sufi thoughts, especially Mewlewi order of Rumi, was symbolizing to annihilation and dissolution, the soul usually wants to get rid of its noise as it was narrated by Rumi in poems of his immortal glory Mesnavi 66.

Such musical instruments appeared widely in the majority of danced Sema ceremonies; Daf is occurred as well as Req which is occurred in more than one school of art, and actually it wasn’t enjoyed with a special significance in writings of Sufism, majority of poets connected it with cymbals. It is appeared in a miniature of one Sema meeting belonged to Turkish school of art, dated to 1595, and from manuscript "Nafahat Al-Uns" showing 2 Req drummers with other 2 Ney players attended that danced mystical Turkish ceremony (IL.13) 67. Some dervishes appeared in that miniature while looking to the players in a sign of their vital role in creating highness atmosphere by their Music.

Cymbal 68was one of the musical instruments appeared in islamic miniatures, it was considered with Riq as helpful elements of producing sufficient music needed for dervishes in their meetings and ceremonies. Both cymbal and Req were used in the same purpose of islamic miniature, and represented as alternatives for drums sometimes; they were utilized with Ney in some painting situations.

Sufis thought that cymbals symbolizing to spiritual hearts, and they were described, in writings of Rumi, as heart of lover dervish 69. So that, it was found in large scale in miniatures of Sufis and dervishes while performing Sema.

From clear samples of miniatures, that contains cymbal, was one dated to 1490, from Manuscript of Divan for Persian Sufi poet Gami, preserved in Metropolitan museum in New York, belonged to Behzad Timurud dynasty, showing cymbal drummer while accompanying 2 of Ney players in exporting musical sounds that create ecstasy mood for all dervishes who were represented, successfully, in a complete Wajd and spiritual attitudes (IL.14) 70.

From Indian musical instruments introduced in miniatures of Sufism was "Rebab" 71; its origin back to India, later on it was known in Persia, where it was called coconut, and spread in Arabic world widely. That instrument formed a special nature in Sufi thought; they considered it as their salvation from materialistic world that they weren’t believed in 72.

This instrument appeared in several miniatures of Sufis, for example; a painting from manuscript Divan of Sufi poet Hafez, dated to 1527, preserved in Harvard arts museum, belonged to first Safavid school of art, representing one of Sema mystical ceremonies with appearance of Rebab player as a principal member of musical instruments’ team; his representation of size and position comparatively with the others lead to this impression. Rebab is occurred clearly and the dervishes of dancers react with its sound positively (IL.15) 73.

Furthermore, "Oud" is commonly appeared in paintings of Sufis and mystical meetings in general. This instrument is distinguished by its occurrence in non ceremonial Sufi paintings, not similar to other musical instruments that appeared only in such miniatures. It’s a synonym for the European instrument lute, and similar to guitar. It could be described simply as a pear-shaped stringed instrument that it’s readily distinguished by its lack of frets and smaller neck. It is considered an ancestor of the guitar 74. It has no common mystical significance in Sufi writings and poems 75.

This musical instrument is appeared in the ceremonial celebrations and mystical meetings of Sufis and dervishes like an Indian Maghul miniature dated to 1645, showing a meeting of mystic Sufis and dervishes in front of tomb (IL.16) 76. Meditation, attraction and Wajd appear clearly on the facial features of the attendants.

Other primitive types of "Oud" appeared in some miniatures by simple sizes and forms; differ from other representations of Oud appeared in various samples of illustrations.

IL. 13 “Ney“ “Mizmar” “Bucc” & “Req” A Turkish Sufi Wajd ceremony A leaf from Manuscript “Nafhat Al-Uns” of “Gami” 1595, Istanbul Cheaster Beaty Library, Dublin Turkish School of art Alaine (W.), Islam, Faith. Art, Culture, Manuscripts of the Cheaster beaty Library, Pl.67

IL. 14 “Book” – “Staff” – “ Cymbal” A Sema dance ceremony in a garden manuscript “Divan” of Gami 1490 , Herat Metropolitan Museum, New York Bihzad Timurid School of Art Bahari (E.), Bihzad, Master of Persian Painting, New York, 2001, Pl.28 ; Fritz (M.), the mystical path, the world of Islam, Faith, People, Culture, Thames and Hudson, 1992, P.129, Pl.1

IL. 15 “Rebab” one of Sema mystical ceremonies with performance of Angeles A leaf from manuscript Divan of Hafez 1527, Tebriz Harvard arts museum, USA First Safavid school of art Sultan Muhamed Robinson (B.W.) Drawings of the Masters, Pl.33; Welch (S.C.), Persian Paintings, Pl.18

IL. 16 “Oud” “Guitar” A meeting of mystic Sufis and dervishes in front of a tomb 1645 Bodlian Library, Oxford Indian Maghul school of art Andrew (T.), Painting from Mughal India, Bodlian Library, Pl.43

Conclusion

This Article presents an analysis for the attributes used by Sufis and dervishes in islamic miniatures, supported by 16 samples of paintings belong to different centuries of medieval epoch, and abstracted from various original manuscripts. Studied miniatures referring to more than 15 instruments in mystical illustrations classified into 3 groups; religious, civil and musical, belonging to all fundamental historical schools of arts; Bihzad, Timurid, Safavid 1st Safavid, 2nd, Bukhara, Indian Maghul, and Turkish. Following issues summarize the conclusion of the study:

• Categorizing all appeared attributes in Sufi miniatures into 3 main collections; religious, civil and musical. This classification depends on usage of each one and its relativity with purpose and function.
• Recognizing different roles of Sufi tools through their shapes and forms like beggar bowls "Kashkul" used in collecting alms, or for feeding or both functions together; Prayer beads "Sebha" used in remembrances and hold sometimes without being utilized; Staffs used as crutches for elderly Sufi sheikhs in the same time, they were found in hands of young dervishes; Books that are found hold by Sufis and dervishes were one of 2 types Qur’an and mystical glories like "Mesnavi", "Mantiq Al-tayr", poems of "Saadi".
• Distinguishing between various positions of those instruments like Kashkul that found while being hanged on the shoulder, or hold in hands, or hanged by Stick; "Sebha" which is often hold by one hand and sometimes utilized by both hands; Flags which are related to funeral and ceremonial events, in the same time occurred in some individual cases hold by Sufis. In addition to musical instruments which usually attended in ceremonial spiritual meetings.
• Resuming various designs, usual sizes, and colours for each attribute; Staff is coloured by one on three Brown, red or Black; "Sebha" is appeared in 2 forms one of 33 beads and the other of 99 ones; designs of flag varied according to Sufi order it belongs to; various sizes of jars are represented to serve different functions needed by Sufis.
• Relating Sufi attributes with their significances in mystical writings like staff which was related to prophet’s miracles, Drum which is compared, in writings of Rumi, with wine in creating absence of awareness’ attitude to serve highness and ecstasy; cymbals which are symbolizing to spiritual hearts; " Rebab" which it’s considered the way to salvation from materialistic world.
• Regarding interest of muslim miniaturists with issues of Sufis and dervishes, in addition to exploring real trials to represent their detailed life in illustrations through introduced samples of attributes used during different ritual performances, in large scales with variety of shapes and forms.

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